The Story of English as a Medium of Instruction in India

Introduction

Today, in this globalized era, English language has a greater importance. As we know that English is not an Indian language. It was introduced by British for their own sake. It would be interesting to look at the British intention behind introducing English in India. Had English imposed by British or Indians themselves accept it? What was the need of introducing English? And how Indian system of knowledge, literature and languages get affected? Also, the paper would discuss language policy of Indian government after independence and the conflicts arose out of it.

Inception of English Education

In 1792, Charles Grant, the director of East India Company (EIC), had laid down the first blueprint on English education in India. It was intended that through English education Indian society can be change morally, socially and mentally. He had said that western knowledge in English as a medium of instruction would help to remove superstitious beliefs prevalent among uncivilized Indians. But, indeed, initially with a religious view English had been introduced in India. The people like Zachary Macaulay (father of Lord Macaulay), William Wilberforce and Charles Grant were keenly interested in spreading Christianity through English education. English language in India, in its introduction, was known as ‘Christian tongue’.

Governor Warren Hastings (1772-85) had respect for Indian traditions and culture, hence he encouraged oriental learning. But on the other hand, missionaries at this point in time were interested in converting Indian minds through religious English education. It is therefore, missionaries criticized the policy of the Governor. It led to distant relationship between the government and missionaries. Between 1792 and 1813 EIC did not allow missionaries to work within its territories.

1813 Charter Act

In 1813, missionaries got free entry to enter into India and carry out its activities. So it was obvious that missionaries would propagate Christianity through English education. In Charter act of 181 the EIC did not mention the language of education. On the other hand, EIC and Government encouraged missionaries to open English schools. The Act stated that money was to be allocated to the “improvement of literature and the encouragement of the learnt natives of India.” Later on, in Anglicists- Orientalists controversy, when Orientalists cited this provision Macaulay interpreted literature as ‘English literature’ and learned native of India as ‘English learned scholars. Here, it is implicit that how the British used the acts for their own sake.

Role of Missionaries in English Education

Since 1813, missionaries became active in India to educate Indians and convert them into a new language (English), a new culture (Western) and new religion (Christianity). Moreover, EIC and the Government not only gave them free entry but also encouraged to open schools. Between 1815 and 1840 numbers of missionary schools were established in different parts of India. For instance, the Baptist Mission Schools (1815), the Serampore College (1818), the London Mission Society’s Schools the Bishop’s College (1818), the Bishop’s College at Sibpur in Bengal (1820), the Culcutta School Society’s Schools (1819), the Jaya Narayan Ghoshal’s English School at Benares (1818).

Alexander Duff, a Scottish missionary, established the General Assembly’s Institution (1830), was very active in establishing missionary schools in 1830 to 1843. In his notion English education was the major instrument to prepare the educated persons in India for the right type of Christianity.

Demand for English by Indians

After so much incentive efforts by Christian missionaries a great demand for English and English education, especially, in Bengal was created. Even, the committee of Public Instruction was under pressure to introduced English as a medium of instruction. As mentioned above, Governor Warren Hastings had respect for Indian traditions and during his tenure the Culcutta Madrassa (1781) and Benares Sanskrit College (1791) were established to impart oriental learning in classical Indian languages of Sanskrit and Persian. In 1824, these colleges along with Delhi College, Agra College and other institutions imparting oriental education started classes in English. In this way, the foundation of oriental learning and Indian classical languages laid by Warren Hastings was destroyed by the missionaries and turned it into English education. Indian students rushed to English classes with lots enthusiasm and eagerness. During 1780-95, a number of English news papers were started, which encourage Indians to write in English. Moreover, in 1830 employment opportunities were opened for English educated Indians; that also led them towards English.  

With religious motive of spreading Christianity and political motives of trade, expanding British Empire and dissemination of western culture, English had been got introduced in India. Indian people, however, accept it and further demand for it. In an incident, group of citizens from Calcutta approached to Sir Edward Hyde, Chief Justice of Supreme Court in Calcutta, and deplore the national deficiency in morals and asked him to open a college offering English education. In fact, the eminent social reformer, Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833) demanded for western knowledge in English. In his view, English was needed to modernize Indian minds, nourish the growth of Indian thought and widen the vision. It means it was indirect demand for English as a language of education, the medium of instruction and dissemination of western morals and values. After the demand for English education government also changed it's strategy to allocate funds to support English education. So, from the above description one might not say that British imposed English on Indians; rather by recognizing the need and benefits they themselves demand for it.

Role of William Bentinck

In 1828 William Bentinck and in 1835 Lord Macaulay came to India. Bentinck was a friend of Charles Grant and Lord Macaulay was a son of Zachary Macaulay. They both took forward the intention of Grant and Zachary Macaulay and tried their best to introduced English as language of education. Governor William Bentinck of the time wrote a letter to the Committee of Public Instruction to make English as a language of Government and the language of education. As a result, In Sep. 1830, court of director asked him to introduced English as a language of public business in all its departments.

Prior to Macaulay’s Minute

Before Macaulay’s Minute came into effect there was a huge debate among the members of General Committee of Public Instruction in relation to language of medium of instruction. It can be classified between two groups- Anglicists and Orientalists. On the one hand, Orientalist’s were the supporters of Indian system of knowledge, Indian languages and literature. On the other, Anglicists wanted European knowledge of science, letters and philosophy and English education. The interesting thing was both the groups were agreed that medium of instruction for Indians must be vernaculars. But in Macaulay’s view, at this point in time, Indian vernaculars were poor and rude in their literatures; so the question arose that from which language the vernaculars were to be enriched and improved. In Anglicists view, those were to be enriched by English and in Orientalist’s view it is to be by classical Indian languages. Although they were agreed for vernaculars to be the medium of instruction, however, they distinguished between two groups on the issue of language from which Indian vernaculars were to be enriched. It is therefore, the committee was failed to decide a language of instruction. To solve this problem William Bentinck appointed Lord Macaulay, President of Committee of Public Instruction, who wrote Minute called- ‘Manifesto of English Education in India.’

Macaulay’s Minute- 1835

Macaulay’s father’s thoughts and intention were very clear in his mind. He was very loyal to Government and, hence, he was so much interested in English education. He very clearly stated goals and objectives of English education in his minute.

“We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern- a class of persons, Indian on blood and colour, but English in taste, opinions, in morals and in intellect”.

By making so many pretends Macaulay eventually ended controversy between Orientalists and Anglicists, and declared English as a medium of instruction in India. In addition, Bentinck also issued resolution right after the month of Minute in March 1835 that all government funds should only be utilized on English education. These both played very key role in making English as a medium of instruction.

By 1830 it was became difficult to EIC to run administration with only English officials. So in 1835 Minute, only creating English educated Baboos was the intention behind English education. And it was expected that elite Indians would educate and they will educate the masses. It means Macaulay’s Minute was only for elites of the country and not for masses.

Wood’s Dispatch of 1854

Wood’s dispatch of 1854 has been sometimes considered as ‘Magna Carta of Indian English education’. It was the first policy statement of British Government and Company on Indian education; and it turned to be milestone for the development of education in India. Wood’s dispatch criticized the earlier language policy of company and the Government. It suggested that company as well as government merely used English as a medium of instruction to suppress indigenous education and to discourage the study of Indian languages and showed how the combination of English and Indian languages together could help to spread proper education in India. the dispatch first explained the need of English as a medium of instruction at the same time explained the translation of European work in Indian vernacular languages for the masses. But it's recommendations were not implemented for the next seven decades. It has been said that Macaulay’s Minute was only for the elite classes of the country but Wood’s Dispatch embraced masses into education.

Another significant contribution of Wood’s Dispatch was in higher education. Three universities were established in three major provinces of Bombay, Madras and Calcutta in 1857. In these universities English was the medium of instruction as well as subject of study right from the beginning. But the interesting thing is- two prestigious universities in England- Oxford and Cambridge started English as a subject of study much later. Oxford started in 1894 and Cambridge allowed English as a course of study in 1911.

Indian Education Commission of 1882

A commission was established in 1882 under the chairmanship of William Hunter; has been known as ‘Hunter Commission’. In relation to language of instruction commission recommended that at lower level vernacular should be preferable (Not mandatory). But there was a demand for English because university entrance exams were conducted in English, and many high schools were imparting education in English. Therefore in this ambivalent attitude commission did not give any specific suggestion for medium of instruction; rather left on market forces to decide.

Indian University Commission 1902

After the establishment of universities in 1857, and later, there were numbers of problems in administration. Hence, Viceroy Lord Curzon appointed Indian University commission in 1902, and then it became Indian University Act- 1904. In the universities established after 1857, English was medium of instruction right from the beginning. Commission observed that at college level, students found to be unable to cope up with English lectures. The Commission recommended that English education at school level needs to be improved, as well as English should not be introduced as a medium of instruction before the child being understand that language. It means commission indirectly suggested that at primary level English should be taught as one of the subject and at high school level it should be made as medium of instruction with the study of vernacular till the end of the school course.

The Government of India resolution of 1913

The government of India was taken a resolution on education policy in 1913. The resolution of 1913 was not suggested any recommendation in relation to English as a medium of instruction. The question on introducing Indian vernaculars as a medium of instruction was raised in Imperial Legislative Council in 1915. Pundit Madan Mohan Malaviya suggested that a committee needs to be constituted to study the problem in detail. But because of funds the proposal was rejected; moreover, the following pretends were given.

1. In vernaculars, there were not suitable textbooks available, and there were no technical terms in the subjects like mathematics and science.

2. There were no qualified teachers for teaching technical subjects in vernaculars.

3. In fact there was no demand for vernaculars.

4. Indian would missed exposure to English was the last one.

So by 1915 there was no change in policy of the government, and English continued to be medium of instruction.

Delhi Conference 1917

Government of India called a conference of the Directors of Public Instruction in January 1917 at Delhi to discuss the issue of making vernaculars as a medium of instruction at high school level. But it was decided by the majority of representatives that English as a subject should be introduced early and gradually it should be made medium of instruction at high school level. However, the luxury was given to students that in exams they could write in vernaculars except English. So again English continued to be medium of instruction.

National Movement

At the time of national movement there was a demand for vernaculars as a medium of instruction. Even the support for ‘Swadeshi Education’ also favored the imparting of education through vernaculars, English being a compulsory subject. This gave an opportunity of growth to Indian languages. National education movement, however, used English as a language of transaction; because, by then, English had become am ‘imposed national necessity’.

Independence Phase

By the time India became independent in 1947, issue of language of instruction had been solved. Regional languages/ mother tongues were accepted as a medium of instruction, with English as a one of the subject from V or VI standard. But, nevertheless, there were few schools for English nationals and elite Indians where the language of instruction was English. However, at the levels of intermediate, Degree College and the university English was a medium of instruction for all the subjects except modern Indian languages or classical languages.

When the colonial countries became independent one of the major problems they face was deciding language of lingua franca. It was even more difficult and complex to divorce country like India. When Indian constitution was adopted in 1950, it recognized fifteen languages as languages of India; fourteen were modern Indian languages and Sanskrit as an Indian classical language. English was continued as an official language along with Hindi for first fifteen years. When these fifteen years were completed in mid sixties there was an anti- Hindi agitation in Tamil Nadu. As stated above, by independence regional languages were accepted as medium of instruction at secondary level but in further education English continued to be a medium of instruction. The University Education Commission (1949), in its report recommended that Indian languages should be medium of instruction at higher education level as well. Moreover, Indian Education Commission established in 1964 under the chairmanship of Dr. D.S. Kothari; known as Kothari commission also given similar suggestion which was given by University Education Commission 1949. The states, however, did not implement the policy. There were courses available in both languages (regional as well as English) up to undergraduate level in arts and sciences. But the professional courses like engineering and medicine continued to be in English at all level. This optionality of mediums created problems for students in spite of becoming facility for students. It actually classified Indian society between two groups. Wealthy and middle class people were (are even now) able to afford English education they send their children into English medium schools. These students grabbed higher education and employment opportunities. On the other hand, students studied in regional languages were not able to cope up with in higher education losed high paid income jobs. In other words, due to access to English medium schools wealthy and middle class students created monopoly over high paid jobs.

In this globalized era, English has so much significance. However, Indian system seems to be apathetic in the diffusion of English among masses of the country. I personally feel that Indian government’s approach is as similar with Macaulay’s; English for the elite classes and vernaculars for the masses. India, being a welfare state, it is a ethical duty of Indian government to bridge this gap between elites and masses by introducing English as it was, and is, even today, for elites right from its inception. The introduction of English by British in India demolished the Indian system of knowledge and literature. Now, English has earned an identity of ‘Global Language’ and vast majority of knowledge is available in English. Infact all the pioneer higher education institutes (IIT’s & IIM’s and others) established in India after independence, all are imparting education in English as a medium of instruction. But I don’t understand what the point in imparting education in regional languages in government school (with merely English as one of the subjects) is? In fact in 1902 Indian University Commission had observed that students who studied English as a subject at school level could not cope up with English lectures at higher education. Then, even today after the completion of sixty-six years of independence Indian education system is unable to change the situation, there must be something wrong is going on with the common masses of the country. Sub-section (f) of section 29 of Right to Education (RTE, 2009) stated that ‘Medium of Instruction shall be child’s mother tongue’. By making such provision, I would say, the government is indirectly denying the right of higher education in school of excellences for such students who studied (willingly or unwillingly) in regional language schools.

Conclusion

With religious view English had been introduced in India. Some people like Zachary Macaulay, Charles Grant and William Wilberforce were interested in propagating Christianity through English education. Later on, Lord Macaulay son on Zachary Macaulay and William Bentinck played a key role in making English as a medium of instruction. Since 1792 until the time of independence there were debates regarding language of instruction but all the time English won this debate and remained language of medium of instruction. But when India became independent the issue of language of medium of instruction had been solved. Up to secondary level regional languages became medium of instruction and higher education continued to be in English as a medium of instruction. Indian University commission (1949) and Kothari Commission (1964) recommended that at higher education level too Indian languages should be medium of instruction. But no state implemented this recommendation and courses made available in both the languages regional as well as in English.

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References

Krishnamurti, B. H. (1990), "The Regional Language vis-à-vis English as the Medium of Instruction in Higher Education: The Indian Dilemma" in Pattanayak, D. P. (Ed.) Multilingualism in India.

Retrieved From: http://en.bookfi.org/s/?q=multilingualism+in+india&e=1&t=0

Krishnaswamy, N. & Krishnaswamy, L.(2006). The Study of English in India. New Delhi: Foundation Books Pvt. Ltd. p. 11-90.

Naik, J.P. & Nururllah, S., (1943). The History of English in India. p. 161-65.

Retrieved From: http://www.arvindguptatoys.com/arvindgupta/JP-5.pdf