Understanding Hearing Impairment

All organs in the human body perform various functions in coordination with each other which helps people in doing their day-to-day activities normally without any problem. But if any one of these organs fails to work properly, the whole system gets disrupted and causes difficulties in the functioning of the body. This problem in body function is called as impairment. Often, impairment is replaced with the term disability when one wants to refer to the limitation in activity caused due to the physiological or psychological abnormality (Impairment, Disability and Handicap, n.d.). In this paper, the term impairment will be used only to denote the health condition in medical terms and not the social situations which show the inability of the individual (especially children) to perform his/her responsibilities.

Immanuel Kant proposed that our knowledge of the outside world depends on our modes of perception. Exteroceptive senses are senses that perceive the body's own position, motion, and state. The human body consists traditionally of 5 external senses namely: sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. These senses work with the help of specialised cellular structures which are eyes, ears, tongue, nose and skin. The sensing is integrated into the nervous system and hence linked to the brain. This paper discusses the various aspects of hearing impairment and its effect on the development of such children.

The ear(s) is responsible for sound perception over a range of frequencies from 20-20,000 Hertz. It helps in differentiating between speech, music and environmental sounds including traffic, chirping of birds, rain, thundering, etc. It is also responsible for developing the sense of balance and spatial orientation (Anatomy and Structure, n.d.). One of the most important effects it has on the speech and language development. This will be discussed later. Hearing impairment affects the development of vocabulary and comprehension of children, consequently affecting their academic achievement. It also causes their isolation in society as they are not able to understand others’ speech or express their own thoughts orally. In the following sections, the definition of hearing impairment, causes of hearing impairment in children have been presented along with its various types.

1. Definition of Hearing Impairment

The World Health Organisation (WHO, 2014) defines hearing impairment as “ hearing loss greater than 40 dB in the better hearing ear in adults and a hearing loss greater than 30 dB in the better hearing ear in children.”

According to The Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992, “hearing handicap means deafness with hearing impairment of 70 decibels and above, in the better ear or total loss of hearing in both ears” (Clause 2 (1)(d)).

The legal definition of hearing impairment in India was given by The Persons with Disability Act, 1995 which is as follows: "Hearing impairment means loss of sixty decibels or more in the better ear in the conversational range of frequencies” (Clause 2 (l)).

From the above definitions, it is evident that hearing impairment is defined in terms of the degree of hearing loss and it differs from one definition to another although the reason for these differences is not clear.

Degree of hearing loss

The degree of hearing loss is determined by looking at the range of decibels an individual is able to hear. This is done by using a formal hearing test known as audiogram. This degree is generally classified in seven categories as per Goodman’s (1965) classification and an additional category — slight hearing loss is added between the normal hearing and mild hearing loss especially when assessing the hearing sensitivity of young children (RCI, n.d.).

Table 1: Classification of Severity of Hearing Impairment

Degree of Hearing Loss	Hearing Loss Range (db HL)
Normal	-10 to 15
Slight	16 to 25
Mild	26 to 45
Moderate	46 to 55

The following section describes the various causes leading to hearing impairment.

2. Causes of Hearing Impairment

The causes of hearing impairment can be broadly divided into two categories:

2.1. Congenital causes

2.2. Acquired causes

2.1.  Congenital causes

Congenital deafness is the loss of hearing present from birth and is mostly caused due to genetic factors. This can again be classified into two types:

2.1.1. Autosomal recessive hearing loss: In this, both parents carry the recessive gene and pass it along to the child. The parents might not have the impairment but the child inherits it. This type of inheritance pattern accounts for about 70% of all genetic hearing loss.

2.1.2. Autosomal dominant hearing loss: An abnormal gene from one parent causes hearing loss even though the matching gene from the other parent is normal. The parent who is carrying the dominant gene may or may not have hearing loss. The autosomal dominant pattern accounts for 15% of all genetic hearing loss cases.

Down Syndrome and Treacher Collins Syndrome are the genetic syndromes which have hearing loss as one of their symptoms (Hearing loss, n.d.).

Down Syndrome (also known as Trisomy 21 or Trisomy G) is a chromosomal disorder caused by an extra 21st chromosome. People with Down Syndrome are at an increased risk of congenital heart defects, organic disorders and hearing loss. Chronic ear infections such as otitis media with effusion (OME) are the most common cause of hearing loss in children with Down Syndrome. Auditory system malformations and neural transmission problems can also cause hearing loss. The degree of hearing loss in children with Down Syndrome varies, but even mild cases can have serious consequences for their speech perception, language acquisition, academic achievement and social interaction.

Treacher Collins Syndrome, also known as Franceschetti syndrome or mandibulofacial dysostosis, is a genetic disorder. Treacher Collins is often accompanied by chronic respiratory insufficiency, sleeping apnea and a conductive hearing loss due to outer and middle ear malformations. The hearing loss is generally bilateral (occurring in both ears) with a conductive loss of about 50-70 decibels. Even in cases with normal and open external auditory canals, the ossicular chain (bones in the middle ear which help amplify sound) is often malformed. Treacher Collins is rare, occurring approximately once in every 10,000 births.

2.1.3. Non-genetic factors: Infections during pregnancy or at the time of labour can also lead to hearing loss. Following is a list of factors causing non-genetic hearing loss in children:

• maternal rubella, syphilis or certain other infections during pregnancy
• inappropriate use of ototoxic drugs (such as aminoglycosides, cytotoxic drugs, antimalarial drugs and diuretics) during pregnancy
• drugs and alcohol consumed by the mother during pregnancy
• maternal diabetes
• low birth weight
• birth asphyxia (a lack of oxygen at the time of birth)
• severe jaundice in the neonatal period, which can damage the hearing nerve in a newborn infant
• prematurity

2.2.  Acquired causes

1. Meningitis is a viral or bacterial infection that causes inflammation and swelling of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. The most common symptoms of meningitis are headache and neck stiffness associated with fever, confusion or altered consciousness, vomiting, and an inability to tolerate light (photophobia) or loud noises (phonophobia). Hearing loss or deafness are amongst it possible serious complications.
2. Chronic Otitis Media: Otitis media (OM) is a middle ear infection which mostly affects children and is the most common childhood disease in the world. The stages of otitis media are diagnosed according to their severity: acute otitis media (AOM); otitis media with effusion (OME); chronic otitis media (COM); and chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM). Periods of conductive hearing loss from otitis media may have a detrimental effect on speech development in children and are linked to educational problems, attention disorders and problems with social adaptation.
3. External Otitis (Otitis Externa): External otitis is an inflammation of the external ear and/or ear canal. Its most commonly caused by an active bacterial or fungal infection. External otitis is also referred to as ‘swimmer's ear’, as it’s often a bacterial infection caused by excessive water exposure. In most cases, the ear canal tissue swells and may become painful and/or tender to touch.
4. Ototoxic medicines damage the ear and are a common cause of hearing loss, especially children who may need medicine on a regular basis. The first symptoms usually are ringing in the ears (tinnitus) and vertigo. Hearing loss caused by an ototoxic medicine tends to develop quickly but hearing may return to normal once the medicine is ceased. However some medicines can cause permanent damage to the inner ear.  Commonly used medicines that may cause hearing loss include: large doses of aspirin; non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; some antibiotics; loop diuretics used to treat high blood pressure and heart failure; and medicines used to treat cancer in children.
5. Trauma: Acoustic trauma is injury to the inner ear’s hearing mechanisms from very loud noise. This may include an explosion near the ear, gunshots or loud music or machinery over a long period of time. Symptoms include hearing loss, which is usually partial and involving high-pitched sounds, and ringing in the ear or tinnitus. Hearing loss caused by acoustic trauma may worsen over time.
6. Atresia/microtia: Atresia is the absence of an external ear canal, and is often accompanied by microtia, where the external ear develops abnormally. The malformations of atresia/microtia can cause a conductive hearing loss. Atresia/microtia usually happens in isolation, but it can also occur as a symptom of syndromes such as Goldenhar and Treacher Collins. The reported incidence of atresia varies between one in every 10,000 and one in every 20,000 children, and is twice as common in boys as girls (Understand hearing loss, n.d.).
7. Head injury or injury to the ear can cause hearing loss.
8. Wax or foreign bodies blocking the ear canal can cause hearing loss at any age. Such hearing loss is usually mild and can be readily corrected.

Hearing impairment can be of various kinds depending on its causes. The next section describes the types of hearing impairment including their causes, symptoms and treatment options.

3. Types of Hearing Impairment

There are mainly three types of hearing impairment:

3.1. Conductive hearing loss

3.2. Sensorineural hearing loss

3.3. Mixed hearing loss

3.1. Conductive hearing loss

Conductive hearing loss occurs when something is blocking sound waves from passing to the inner ear, through the outer and middle ear. Causes can include blockage of the outer ear or ear canal, an ear infection with fluid, malformation of the outer or middle ear, allergies (serous otitis media), perforated eardrum, impacted earwax (cerumen), infection in the ear canal (external otitis), Swimmer's Ear (otitis externa) and presence of a foreign body. It usually involves a reduction in sound level or the ability to hear faint sounds, speech tends to sound understandable, but only if it's loud enough and there isn't too much background noise. This type of hearing loss can often be corrected medically or surgically. If the condition cannot be addressed through medication or surgery, many people with conductive hearing loss may benefit from using traditional hearing aids or bone conduction hearing aids (Hearing Loss Explained, n.d.).

3.2. Sensorineural hearing loss

Sensorineural hearing loss is usually a result of a problem with the cochlea (inner ear), either through malformation or damage. This can also happen due to damage to the nerve pathways from the inner ear to the brain. Damage can occur from infections such as meningitis, as a side effect of certain medications described as ototoxic, malformation of the inner ear, head trauma or exposure to loud noise. SNHL reduces the ability to hear faint sounds. Even when speech is loud enough to hear, it may still be unclear or sound muffled. When present in both ears, sensorineural hearing loss will mean having difficulty understanding, even when speech seems loud enough. When in one ear, there may be difficulty locating sounds or hearing in background noise. This is the most common type of permanent hearing loss. Treatment for sensorineural hearing loss varies, depending on the severity of hearing loss and whether it has affected one ear or both.

Treatment for SNHL in both ears

Hearing aids can help most people with mild to moderate sensorineural hearing loss in both ears. For more severe levels of hearing loss, sometimes hearing aids do not help because sensorineural hearing loss causes sounds to become distorted. Amplifying sounds through hearing aids makes them sound louder, but not necessarily clearer. For severe to profound hearing loss, a cochlear implant is effective. It is an electronic device that is surgically implanted so it bypasses the damaged inner part of the ear to stimulate the hearing nerve directly. Unlike hearing aids which simply amplify sound, cochlear implants convert sound waves to electrical impulses in a way that works like natural hearing.

Treatment for SNHL in one ear

In mild to severe sensorineural hearing loss in one year, a conventional hearing aid is the most common treatment option. However, as hearing aids require some degree of useable hearing, they can’t help in the case of profound hearing loss. In profound losses, bone conduction implants can transmit sound through bone, from the damaged ear to the working inner ear on the other side. This makes it easier to understand speech in noisy situations and reduces the attenuation of sounds from the deaf side.

3.3. Mixed hearing loss

Mixed hearing loss is a combination of conductive and sensorineural hearing loss. In other words, there may be damage in the outer or middle ear and in the inner ear (cochlea) or auditory nerve. Genetic factors, overexposure to loud noise, certain medications and the normal ageing process can lead to sensorineural hearing loss. Birth defects, diseases, infections, tumours or masses and head injuries are all possible causes of both conductive and sensorineural hearing loss.This type of hearing loss ranges in severity from mild to profound.  For people with mixed hearing loss, sounds can be both softer in volume and more difficult to understand. Depending on the degree of mixed hearing loss, it may be treated with medications, surgery, hearing aids or an implantable bone conduction hearing system.

4. Impact of hearing impairment on development of children

Disability in interacting normally: Hearing loss causes the impairment to become a disability by delaying speech development and thus inability to participate or initiate any conversation.

Academic achievement: Children with normal to profound hearing impairment have difficulty in learning abstract words like before, after, equal to, and jealous. They also have difficulty with function words like the, an, are, and a. Their overall vocabulary is weaker than other children of their age. Due to poor communication and language comprehension, their academic achievement is affected.

Construction of sentences and pronunciation of words: Children with hearing loss comprehend and produce shorter and simpler sentences than children with normal hearing. They have difficulty understanding and writing complex sentences, such as those with relative clauses or passive voice. Children with hearing loss often cannot hear word endings such as-s or-ed. This leads to misunderstandings and misuse of verb tense, pluralisation and possessives. Children with hearing loss often cannot hear quiet speech sounds such as "s," "sh," "f," "t," and "k" and therefore do not include them in their speech. Thus, their speech may be difficult to understand (Hearing loss, n.d.).

Social isolation: Children with hearing loss may not hear their own voices when they speak. They may have a speaking pitch that is too high. Their speech may sound like mumbling because of inadequate emphasis and speed of speaking. Since these children are not able to speak properly, hear others and at the same time other people find it difficult to understand their words, these children become isolated in social environment and often suffer from depression.

Economic impact: According to WHO (2014), children with hearing impairment do not receive quality education and in future find it difficult to get employment. Even if they do, the jobs are of low levels compared to general workforce. Thus, their choice of vocation is restricted and consequently source of income too.

References

Anatomy and structure of Human Sense Organs. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.scientificpsychic.com/workbook/chapter2.htm 

Hearing Loss. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.asha.org/public/hearing/Hearing-Loss/

Hearing Loss Explained. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://listeningandspokenlanguage.org/Tertiary.aspx?id=1202

Impairment, Disability and Handicap. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.pediatrics.emory.edu/divisions/neonatology/dpc/Impairment%20MX.html

Ministry of Law, Justice and Company Affairs. (1992). The Rehabilitation Council of India Act,       1992 (No. 34 of 1992). New Delhi. Retrieved from http://www.svayam.com/pdf/the_rci_act-1992&amendement_act_2000.pdf

Ministry of Law, Justice and Company Affairs. (1996). The Persons with Disability Act (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) 1995 (No.1 of 1996). New Delhi. Retrieved from http://meghpol.nic.in/acts/central/PWD_Act.pdf

Rehabilitation Council of India. (n.d.). Hearing Impairment. Retrieved from    http://www.rehabcouncil.nic.in/writereaddata/hi.pdf

Understand hearing loss and its causes. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.cochlear.com/wps/wcm/connect/in/home/understand

WHO (2014). Deafness and hearing loss. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs300/en/

WHO (n.d.). Disabilities. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/topics/disabilities/en/

Understanding ‘Inclusion In Education’ From a Caste Perspective

Comparison of Two Policy Documents Concerning Teachers’ Status, Teacher Education and In­service Training

This paper compares the Report of the Committee for Review of National Policy on Education 1986 (1990) also known as Acharya Ramamurti Committee Report and the World Education Report: Teachers and Teaching in a Changing World (1998) published by UNESCO. The main terms of reference for comparison are teacher’s professionalisation, professionalism, resources and assessment practices.

Teacher's professionalisation

The World Education Report (1998) mostly refers to the R​ecommendation concerning the Status of Teachers (​1966) while discussing the aspects of teacher education, their recruitment and conditions of service.

It recommends that for an individual to be employed as a primary teacher, completion of secondary education should be the minimum educational qualification. They should also have undergone a formal teacher training programme. But it also acknowledges the fact that often these requirements are ignored by recruiters when there is a shortage of teachers. Since unqualified candidates are also employed for the job of teaching, the status of teachers in comparison with other professionals is undermined.

The report gives an interesting insight about the low salary paid to teachers even though people working in other professions with same or lesser qualification receive a decent pay. It says that teaching is generally considered to be a woman's profession which attaches certain negative characteristic to it unlike other jobs which are dominated by males. There is a possibility that more number of female employees in teaching results in low level of salary being paid to teachers as a group. This kind of system can be removed only when discrimination against women is eliminated and their skills and qualifications are given the respect that they deserve.

The Recommendations (1966) emphasise that the salary structure of newly ­recruited teachers should be discussed between teachers’ organisation and their employers and then only decided. But there are very few countries which have teacher associations that enjoy freedom to deliberate and demand better emoluments and working conditions for their member teachers.

The report quotes an excerpt from a paper presented at the 45th session of the International Conference on Education, Geneva, 1996 by Ministry of Human Resource Development (Government of India). This paper states that in India every state grants the formation of teachers’ unions so that they can collectively bargain for improving the overall service conditions of teachers. However they do not have certain facilities provided by the government as enjoyed by other public servants. The report too says that equating teaching with other public sector jobs restricts teachers to bargain for their rights.

Age ­profile of teachers also affects the expenditure on teacher salary. Developing countries like India have more number of young teachers than those in developed countries. These teachers most likely will continue their service till retirement with raise in salary. At the same time, more and more young professionals will join the field. Thus, the overall public expenditure on education needs to be raised. However, this is not generally the case as stated by the report that till 1998, “no region of the world at present has the average share of educational expenditure in GNP yet reached the 6 per cent level ...”. This is reiterated several times in the document that in spite of increasing demand for quality in education, the expenditure on education has not increased significantly and it is considered by the states that education systems will expand themselves with the help of existing resources.

Acharya Ramamurti Committee reviewed the National Policy on Education (1986) and gave recommendations for improving the overall system of education in India. In regard to recruitment of teachers, it says that mere good grades in academics at the university level should not be the sole criterion for selecting someone as a teacher. It recommends that the candidate should be tested for his/her aptitude for teaching first and then only employed.

But when it comes to non ­formal education, the committee recommends that para ­teachers be recruited. These para ­teachers are required in areas where either a large section of population does not have access to formal school system or in situations where children work during day time and cannot come to schools. The committee says that these teachers need not have qualification like the formal teachers in school. Also they should be preferably from local community who are interested in working with children. These teachers will work under probation for two­-three years and receive a salary almost half as that of school teacher. They will be appointed as permanent teachers in school only after completion of minimum qualification during probation.

The committee encourages mobility of teachers within the education system as well as other related sectors. It says that there should be provision to transfer the benefits of teachers’ past service from one institution to other.

The committee considers it essential that along with working conditions, the living conditions of teachers are also good. It suggests that the school building should have separate rooms for teachers so that they can interact with students and also they should have access to departmental libraries. They should get residential quarters in areas which facilitate community life as well as medical support. There should be arrangement from the institution’s side so that the teachers can travel for participating in conferences, industrial centres, etc.

Teacher professionalism

Apart from the factors mentioned earlier in UNESCO report (1998) which accord low status to the profession of teaching, the multiple functions that teachers are required to perform other than teaching also give cause uncertainty of their status. This uncertainty more often than not comes from within, i.e., teachers themselves feel unprepared when they join their duty. These functions include designing and administering tests for students, school management and administration, conducting classes using educational technologies, etc. In addition to this, teachers are also required to develop a rapport with the community to which majority of the students belong. The report highlights that the focus of teacher ­training programmes on only strengthening the content ­knowledge and pedagogy skills of teachers while ignoring the different responsibilities as mentioned above, to be carried out by teachers acts as a hindrance in their initial stage as a teacher.

This is more important for primary teachers who spend most of their day with a particular group of children for the whole academic session when compared to secondary school teachers who teach one or two subjects to various groups of students and do not get involved with any

particular group.

There is one more threat to the professionalism of teachers because of such pre ­service training. Instead of being an active contributor to the educational process in classroom, teachers become passive agents of passing prescribed information using prescribed methods to the students. The report does not provide any solution for this but asserts that orienting teachers ­to ­be about different teaching methods might help them in deciding what helps students to learn better.

The report next talks about in­service programmes for teacher training and stresses the fact that like any other professional, teachers too should update their knowledge and skills. While in­ service programmes initially dealt only with subject area knowledge, later the aspects related to assessment of students, educating children with special needs and school management were also included. Thus the issues with pre ­service training discussed earlier were covered in in­service training.

The report claims that although in many countries response to in­service training is overwhelming and that teachers take interest in obtaining career development qualifications leading to raise in salary, mostly teachers do not take initiative in participating in such programmes. This is partly due to the already packed schedule of teachers which does not motivate them to engage in any other activity during school hours and partly due to the lack of rewards on completion of such programmes.

The report recommends that instead of making in­service training a compulsion for continuation of service, teachers should be rewarded in the form of promotion, salary raise, etc. once they successfully complete the training.

The Acharya Ramamurti committee proposes the Internship model as an alternative to the pre ­service teacher ­training programme. It asserts that the shortcomings of the conventional pre­ service training are many such as isolation from real field experiences, is theoretical and involves high expenses. On the other hand this model aims at integrating theory and practical experiences of teachers so that they can learn for themselves which of their skills and methods are most helpful for learning outcomes of students.

District Institute for Education and Training and Educational complexes are given the responsibility to conduct these programmes along with monitoring and evaluation of schools. The teacher education colleges are suggested to be in close collaboration with DIETs and schools so that the trainees could get field experience during training. The report presents a two­-dimensional chart representing content to be learnt by teachers during training and how it can be learnt. The content includes knowledge, skill and attitude to be learnt through theoretical instruction, practical work and fieldwork experience respectively. Thus, there is too much emphasis on teacher’s empirical experience. During this period, the teacher­-student is required to be working under a skilled and experienced teacher who will demonstrate the practical aspects of training and will help in clarifying doubts.

The committee stresses the need for in­service training so that teachers are able to update their knowledge and skills. As discussed in the UNESCO report, this committee also supports inclusion of evaluation practices and training of those who evaluate teachers in the in­service training. The programme should also train teachers in areas like pre­school education, education for children with special needs, activity-­based learning etc.

The difference between the two reports in this regard is that while UNESCO report does not agree with the condition of institutions of forcing teachers to attend in­service training for continuation of service, Ramamurti committee claims that teachers should be demanded to undergo in­service training in order to stay employed. It also encourages the participation of teachers in planning and administrative activities of school. According to the committee, if teachers are involved in decision ­making process they will also implement them effectively thus improving the overall functioning of institution.

Resources

While the UNESCO report does not specifically talk about general living conditions of teachers, it discusses a great deal about the teaching and learning conditions which affect a teacher’s professional and personal status. Firstly it states that increasing student enrolment rates

are of no use if the conditions in which the students go are not suitable for learning. Thus it recommends that before any other expenditure in education, investment should be made in well-­planned and solid school buildings, furniture, water and electricity facilities and teaching­-learning materials. Only when this is fulfilled will the teachers be interested in teaching and students will learn in a productive manner.

Next important aspect of teaching and learning conditions is the class size. This has an economic implication because the class size determines number of teachers to be employed. In countries with large population, class sizes are big requiring more teachers and thus more expenditure by state on teacher salary.

However the report brings to our notice a problem with this in regard to regions where dropout rates are high. Thus, no stable policy can be proposed concerning teachers’ employment and salaries in such situations. Although the report does not say that large class size is a problem, it reveals that small class size helps both teachers and students to engage in teaching-­learning activity.

A section of the report is dedicated to the use of technology in education and its implications for teachers. It acknowledges that information technology will increasingly influence the teaching-­learning materials and teaching methods It says that unless the softwares are developed in such a way that the prescribed curriculum is readily integrated with them, use of technology in classrooms cannot contribute to students’ learning. The report stresses that teachers should be involved in the process of developing educational softwares so that they are in a better position to handle the technology and solve any technical difficulties that may arise during its use.

The Acharya Ramamurti committee recommended that the revised curriculum prepared by the NCTE for the B.Ed. courses should be sent to training institutions before finalising it. Suggestions from teacher educators and students should be taken so that it receives wider acceptance in implementation. It also emphasises that teachers should be provided with relevant material about current practices and debates in education. The report states that teachers should be included in the curriculum designing process.

Assessment practices

The UNESCO report discusses how teachers are assessed after they enter the profession. This assessment is unlike the one which is conducted to check the understanding of subject knowledge or knowledge about teaching methods. The evaluation is done so as to see if they are able to transact the curriculum as mandated by the school and if the learning outcomes of students is improving. Based on these criteria, it is usually decided by the headteacher and regional supervisor as to who will get promoted or otherwise.

The report asserts that there should be a valid assessment for teachers which they should be able to question also in case they feel it is unfair. It refers to a P​roposed checklist of teacher behaviour items to be utilized in the appraisal of primary and secondary school teachers in Beijing (p.75). Elements like preparation of teaching plans, assigning homeworks to students, evaluation procedures, teaching methods, presentation in front of class, etc. are taken into account while assessing teacher effectiveness and this ideally allows for objective evaluation of the teacher. The report supports the recommendation made by The 1996 International Conference on Education, that along with teachers those who supervise and evaluate teachers should also undergo formal training so that a fair appraisal and promotion is conducted.

As discussed earlier within the internship model proposed by Acharya Ramamurti committee the trainee will work in an institution during training. The committee suggests that only after three-­five years the trainee should be certified as a trained teacher. Based on the skills developed by the trainee during the training, his/her performance as observed by senior teachers and a written and oral test will be conducted to evaluate him/her.The committee recommends that head of the institution should have all the autonomy to evaluate the teachers in­service.

Both the reports stress that there is need for research in the field of teaching and that teachers should be given opportunities to engage in educational research right from the pre­service training through their career as a teacher.

References

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (1998). W​orld Education Report 1998: Teachers and Teaching in a Changing World.​Paris: UNESCO.

Government of India, Ministry of Human Resource and Development. (1990). R​eport of the Committee for Review of National Policy on Education 1986.​New Delhi

Teacher Professional Development: Comparative study of Acharya Ramamurti Committee(1990) and UNESCO World Education Report(1998) on the aspect of In-service Teacher Education

The Acharya Ramamurti Committee Report(1990) and UNESCO World Education Report(1998) both see In-Service Teacher Education as an essential element towards professional development of the teachers. According to UNESCO report the very nature of In-Service Teacher Education indicates the existing level of professionalism among the teachers. If the demand for In-Service teacher education is coming from within the teaching community it is said to indicate the very high level of professionalism when compared to a top down approach where the training programmes are imposed on the teachers. Then the teachers willingness to invest in their own professional development is said to indicate the high level of professional status of teaching. Further the professional status of teaching and professionalism among teachers are suggested to be closely interrelated. The prospective of attaining higher levels of professional status is said to serve as the most important motivation for teachers to voluntarily invest their time, effort and resources in improving their professionalism. It also observes that there is high level of teacher participation in areas where in-service education enables them to obtain qualifications that lead to the career development in terms of improvement in their salaries, tenure etc. This trend is said to be common across various professions.  It cites the teacher’s large number of enrollment in open universities as an evidence for their willingness to independently invest for climbing up the professional ladder. Hence the success of In-Service Teacher Education is argued to be interlinked with the factors like opportunities for upward mobility, incentives for improving professional status, extent of workload and the provision of support in terms of teaching-learning resources.  When compared to UNESCO report it is observed that the arguments made by the Acharya Ramamurti Committee with regard to Inservice Teacher Education are either inconsistent or incoherent in various sections of the report.

It proposes an Internship Model to meet the huge demands for teachers in the very short period. In this model the Headmaster/mistress would directly recruit the para teachers for the para schools that will serve the educational needs of children of the slum dwellers, villages, mohallas or habitations that are not yet served. There will be relaxation in the educational qualifications  and also in the remuneration of such para-teachers. Para teachers will be trained by senior teachers of the school and occasionally by the DIETs. After three to five years of such training they will be absolved as regular teachers. In another section while discussing about the leadership roles of the teachers it confesses that the current teachers lack the necessary motivation, aptitude and competence to assume the leadership role. On the other hand while listing out the characteristics of teacher educator it states that they should be the role models with high academic competence. These teacher educators will be from the existing school cadre who have years of experience.

The probability of finding teacher educators among the existing school cadre who will serve as role model will be very low. UNESCO report claims that poor school infrastructure, huge pupil teacher ratio, multigrade classrooms and lack of support in terms of teaching-learning resources work against the teachers who are willing to sustain high levels of competence. These conditions are said to be widespread in India by the Acharya Committee and hence the poor chances of finding teacher educators in large numbers. Further it is questionable whether in service training of para teachers will succeed given the failure of the same with regard to regular teachers.       

In another section the Acharya committee brings to our attention that there is lack of provision for organised and periodic in-service education of teachers in India coupled with poor co-ordination and monitoring of the such services. Here it also highlights the absence of research base on in-service education. So the rationale for suggesting the recruitment of para teachers given such poor conditions is not justifiable in any manner.

UNESCO report exactly claims that it is such practices of recruiting para teachers which has negatively impacted the professional status of the teachers. It says whenever there are pressures on the State to meet the huge demands for teachers instead of increasing budgetary allocation or reforming the regulatory framework States have opted to keep the wages low by recruiting para teachers in large numbers while relaxing the criteria needed for a teacher. This is said to spread the poor image of the teachers and their competence.

Along with this the Acharya committee in its recommendations regarding para teachers calls for handing over the effective control of the school, including the appointment, posting and promotion of teachers, to a coordinated management system involving the school, Village Education Committee and the Educational Complex. Given the perception of low status and poor competence of teachers the implications of involving Village Education Committee composed of community members is not dealt meaningfully. In villages where the means of production is largely in the hands of higher castes mere representation of members from lower castes in such committees is said to be not sufficient to guard schools from caste discrimination, inherent hierarchies, gender bias and inequalities entrenched in the villages. So any involvement of Village Education Committee can further end up undermining the competence and role of teaching community.

Further it emphasises that preference should be given to women teachers to encourage the enrollment of girls students. This is a very valid argument but the committee fails to explore other dimensions of this issue. In other sections too it calls for considerable increase in the number of women teachers.  UNESCO report suggests that the poor professional status of the teachers and lower wages directly draws from the status of the women in the community. In other sectors it is observed that large number of women with high academic achievements are missing from the labor force. Most women are said to take up jobs only when the family is in financial distress. Further women are said to prefer teaching profession as it is considered less demanding by them and hence they can balance both the roles as a homemaker and teacher. This obligation exclusively on the women with regard to performing domestic chores and child rearing in the family is said to result in poor interest shown towards their willingness or to voluntarily take up the in-service education. This again necessitates the top down approach where in-service training is imposed on the teachers indicating poor professionalism. In such cases higher remuneration is said to have helped the women teachers to avail services like play schools for their children or maid servants for doing domestic chores. UNESCO report clearly brings out this interaction where all the factors are interlinked and influence each other.

Regarding the mobility of teachers, Acharya committee recommends to encourage the mobility of teachers both within the education system as well as between education system and other related sectors. It also suggests to ensure transfer and protection of benefits availed through past services during such mobility. UNESCO report suggests to link such mobility with the In-Service teacher education.

The recommendations of Acharya committee is ambivalent towards increased role and participation of teachers in the management and decision making bodies of the school. It recommends that teachers, teacher educators and the training institutions must be assigned a leadership role in all aspects of education policy making, planning, strategy formulation, implementation and monitoring.  While discussing teacher’s participation it also cites that the democratic practices of electing representatives for school bodies by the teachers has given rise to political activism, conflicts and confrontations. In such cases it recommends other modes of representation like seniority by rotation, nomination etc. It fails to appreciate that the already entrenched hierarchies or social arrangements can be normalised only through such political activism. Confrontations and conflicts trigger the debate on various issues and make teachers to engage deeply with the issues. Self governance should be seen as a gradual outcome of such confrontations and conflicts. It is through the practice of such democratic ethos in the school governance the teachers will be able to nurture the same in the children. So the need for teacher’s increased participation is well recognised but the nature of such participation needs further examination. The scope for teacher’s participation in the decision making bodies of the school and other related areas is suggested to indicate the extent of teacher’s professional status and professionalism. Such participation is said to help teachers themselves realize the importance of in-service teacher education while also influencing their peers towards upgrading their skills and knowledge.

Acharya Committee also recommends for community empowerment by communicating the expected learning outcomes from schools in simple form and arranging opportunities where the community could directly evaluate what their children have gained from the school. This is suggested to help both the teachers and the community to be mutually accountable in a responsible and meaningful manner. Committee also recommends a strong distance education system of in- service education developed using TV, Radio and Print media that can be easily accessed by all.

Acharya committee recommends the teacher training model followed by Central Institute of Indian Languages where teachers are paid full salaries for ten months of the training period along with the stipend. However during the training period the services of the teachers cannot be availed by the schools. This is seen as a drawback but given the poor service conditions and support for teachers such models are said to be very successful and effective in improving the knowledge and skills of the teachers. Committee strongly suggests to increase both the funds and teacher enrollment in such training programmes. Further the committee points out that education being a concurrent subject sometimes both Centre and State are seen to expect from the other party to make provision for the in-service education programmes leading to negligence or delay in the sanction of the funds for teacher training. Teacher training institutions are also referred in the report to be acting like a dumping grounds for punishing troublesome teachers. Most posts in the DIETs are said to be vacant substantiating such presumption. In another section the committee recommends increased autonomy for DIETs for carrying out teacher training programmes.

UNESCO report suggests that the most important component of teacher training is the teacher assessment. Usually teacher assessments are said to be used for selecting teachers for promotion, to give tenure, to assign particular roles etc. Instead the UNESCO recommends to use the such assessments in in-service teacher training for knowledge advancements of the teachers. Assessments are said to help in identifying the critical areas in which teachers might need help while promoting efficient use of resources. The lack of evaluation on the effectiveness of teacher training programmes through such assessments are said to be the prominent reason for their poor quality. In same discussion the report cautions the use of student performance as a yardstick for measuring teacher effectiveness. If teachers are solely held responsible for the student performance then the role of students own responsibility and efforts are said to be comfortably ignored. Even when the teacher is effective in teaching a particular concept, students performance in tests after few weeks or months later is said to not clearly reflect the teacher’s performance. So the report recommends for the judicious use of teacher assessments without hurting the professional status of the teachers.

UNESCO report observes the need for in-service training of not just teachers but also those responsible for management, supervision and evaluation of teachers. It stresses the need to prioritize training of such personnel over the teachers to avoid the systematic hangover of the entire mechanism. With regard to employing new technology in the classroom it suggests that teacher should be given the freedom to choose the technology in which they are comfortable. Even before introducing it to classroom, teachers are suggested to be given with an opportunity to experiment with such technology among their peers. It also recommended for including teachers in developing educational softwares. Further teacher training is recommended to go beyond the disciplinary subjects to include opportunities to sensitize the teachers with various social, political and economical issues pertaining to education.